This route is interesting as being that of the 10,000 Greeks, who, in their memorable retreat from Babylonia, pursued it in the depth of winter, at which season, owing to the snow and the tremendous severity of the climate in this high mountain region, the communication is at present often interrupted.

The following outline of their perilous march will be serviceable to the traveller who may wish to trace it in his progress. For the identification of the names given to the various localities by Xenophon with those of modem times, we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Layard, to whose able work, ‘Nineveh and Babylon,’ we refer the reader for the details upon which his conclusions are founded.

Xenophon says that the Greeks, on their return from Babylonia, after the death of Cyrus, went through the desert on the rt. of the Tigris, and, passing on the opposite side of the river the considerable city of Cænæ (rains at Kalah Sherghat), arrived at the Zabates river, — the greater Zab. Here, at a place which Mr. Layard identifies with Abou Sheeta, they halted in the immediate neighbourhood of the Persian army under Tissaphernes. Here took place the treacherous seizure of Clearchus and the other commanders, and here, at daybreak on the following day, the Greeks, having elected other leaders, and destroyed, by the advice of Xenophon, their superfluous baggage, recommenced, by the passage of the Zab, their arduous retreat. Mr. Layard thinks it clear that the ford about Abou Sheeta, about 25 m. from the confluence of the Zab and the Tigris, is that by which they effected the passage. It is still the principal ford in that part of the river, and, from the nature of the bed of the stream, must have been so from the earliest periods. From the Zab the Greeks proceeded by Lerissa (Nimroud) and Mespila (Kouyunjik) to near the modern village of Batnai, between Tel Kef and Tel Eskof, where they halted and repulsed an attack of the Persian forces. They then crossed the hills by a precipitous pass near the modern Zakko, and after 4 days’ march, in the course of which they must have passed the river Khabour and its confluent the Hazel — though those rivers are not mentioned by Xenophon — they reached the high mountains of Kurdistan, “ at a place,” says their historian, “where the river is, both from its depth and breadth, absolutely impassable; no road appeared, the craggy mountains of the Carduchi absolutely overhanging the river.” This mush have been near Fynyk, a village on the Tigris, supposed to be on the site of an ancient town (Phønica), where the foot of the Kurdistan mountains is first washed by the river. A plan now proposed for crossing the river by a bridge formed of inflated skins being rejected on account of the strong force assembled on the other side to oppose the passage, 2 roads only were left to the Greeks:— 1, that to the W., crossing the Tigris near Jezireh, and thence through Orfa, Aintab, Tarsus, and the Cicilian Gates to Lydia; and 2, that across the mountains of the Carduchi, or Kurdistan. They chose the latter, as it led into Armenia, through which they might reach the sea, and from whose numerous villages they could obtain provisions. Beyond the Carduchian mountains there were then, as now, 2 roads into Armenia: one crossing the plains of Kherzan to Diarbekir, and thence over the mountains to Kharput; the other passing through Bitlis. The Greeks pursued the latter of these. Fighting their way over a succession of difficult passes stoutly defended by the warlike Carduchi, they at last reached the river Centritis, i.e. the confluence of the modern rivers of Sert, Bitlis, and Bohtan, near the modern Tilleh, where it joins the W. Tigris. On the opposite bank of this river they found a combined force of Armenians, Mygdonians, and Chaldeans assembled to oppose their progress; but, skilfully eluding them, they effected a passage higher up. They were here compelled, by the desertion of the villages, owing to the inroads of the Carduchi and the consequent lack of provisions, to abandon the direct route along the Bitlis branch of the river as far as Bitlis, and turning, therefore, to the W., they pursued their march through part of the modern district of Redwan. Crossing the plain of Kherzan, and then turning somewhat to the E. again to avoid the mountains in the N. of that district, they came to the W. bank of the small river Teleboas, which has been supposed by some to be the Kara-su; but Mr. Layard gives satisfactory reasons for identifying it with the river of Bitlis, which, as it joins the Sert-su before it falls into the Tigris at Tilleh, might well, under another name, have appeared a different river to Xenophon. The Greeks probably reached it a little below the modem town of Bitlis; thence they continued their march, on the same side of the river, through the valley of Bitlis, skirting the W. foot of the Nimroud Dagh range, through a thickly-inhabited plain, which agrees exactly with Xenophon’s description of it. They left lake Van to the rt. concealed from them by a range of low hills, which accounts for the absence of any mention of that lake by Xenophon. In 6 marches, each of 5 parasangs or hours, from Bitlis, they reached the Euphrates at the place where it is still crossed by the high road between Bitlis and N. Armenia. Beyond this stage of their journey the narrative of Xenophon is not sufficiently accurate to enable us to follow them with any degree of certainty. Mr. Layard thinks it most probable that they took “the road still used by caravans through the plains of Hinnis and Hassan Khaleh, as offering the fewest difficulties;” that “the river Harpuns, mentioned by Xenophon, must be the Tchoruk, and the Phasis either the Araxes or the Keir;” and that “Mount Theches, the Holy Mountain (32 parasangs from Trebizond, according to Xenophon), from which the Greeks first beheld the sea, was between Batoom and Trebizond, the Greeks having followed the valley of the Tchoruk, but left it before reaching Batoom.” By others this mountain is supposed to be either the Tekieh Dagh or the Karakaban; but Mr. Layard is of opinion that the Greeks did not pass near the modern Erzeroom, since, among other reasons, had they taken either of the 3 roads from Erzeroom to the coast, they must have seen the sea for the first time at a distance of not more than 6 or 8 parasangs from Trebizond. If the particulars given by Xenophon of the latter part of the journey are accurate, which seems more than doubtful, the course of the Greeks, after leaving the Euphrates, must have been very tortuous, leading them but very slowly to the sea, which they at length reached at Trebizond.

The following route from Erzeroom to Moussul by the lake of Van, Bitlis and Jezireh, was taken in September, 1849, by Mr. Layard. We extract an outline of it, by his permission, from his above-mentioned work ‘Nineveh and Babylon,’ to which we refer the traveller for a detailed account of many objects of interest with which it abounds.

There are no regular post-stations upon it, but a firman will procure horses. The road has only become safe for travellers since the Turkish government has subjected the Beys to its authority, which they so long defied:—

	Days.#
Guli	0
Bey-köi	1
Kosli	1
Karagol	1
Piron	1
Akhlat	1
Keswak	1
Bitlis	1
Hamki	3
Redwan	1
Chellek	1
Funduk	1
Mansouriyah	1
Feshapoor	1
Semil	1
Moussul	1

For the rest of the journey to Bagdad see Rte. 35.

Guli, 9 m.

After leaving Guli a high range of mountains, running nearly E. and W., is crossed by a pass called Ali Baba. or Ala Baba, from the top of which is an extensive view over the plain of Pasvin. To the S. are the snow-capped mountains of Bin Ghiul, or “Thousand Lakes,” the source of the Araxes and other rivers.

Bey-köi, 1 day, a village inhabited by Kurds. The road now proceeds through valleys and among undulating hills abounding with bustards, to the Arras or Araxes, which in the dry season is crossed by a ford, but after rains and during spring it is an impassable torrent; thence it leads over the W. spur of the Tiektab mountains, and descends into the wide and fertile plain of Hinnis. The Subhan. or Sipan Dagh, a magnificent conical peak covered with snow, rises abruptly from the plain. N. of lake Van. According to the tradition, Noah’s ark, floating on the waters of the deluge, struck against its top, when the patriarch, congratulating himself on his escape, exclaimed Subhanu-llah, “Praise be to God;” and hence the name. In the plain is situated the considerable town of Hinnis, near which, in the village of Bashkan, are hot springs, supposed to be those visited by Xenophon after he had crossed the Euphrates. Leaving the town, the road leads on to

Kosli, 9 hours, a large Armenian village at the foot of the hills forming the S. boundary of the plain of Hinnis. Here, as in many other villages where no khan is found, there is a guest-house for the reception of travellers.

Leaving Kosli, the road lies over the plain, and at Kara-kupri, near the ruins of a bridge, fords a branch of the Murad Chai, or Lower Euphrates, and leaves the plain by a pass through the mountain-range of Zernak. On the summit of a rock overhanging the road are the ruins of a castle, from which the Kurdish chiefs, not very long since, levied black-mail on the traveller.

Karagol, 1 day, a Kurdish village, beautifully situated in a plain watered by the Murad Chai. The Sipan Dagh rises abruptly before it.

The road now crosses the river by a ford near the village of Tekhout, then passes through a swamp abounding with myriads of wild fowl, and afterwards enters upon a line of hills separating it from the lake Gula Shailu. On an elevation near is an Armenian monastery, belonging to the large Armenian village of Kop, in the plain below. About 5 h. after the road comes to the Gula Shailu, at the further end of which is

Piron,1 day, a village inhabited by Kurds and Armenians. It now passes to the small village of Khers, on the W. extremity of the lake Nazik Gul, which is separated from the Gula Shailu by a range of low hills, and then, skirting the E. bank of the lake, enters on an undulating country traversed by deep ravines, in which are numerous villages, until it reaches

Akhlat, 1 day, a picturesque ruined city, situated at the N.W. corner of Lake Van, a great inland sea, bounded both to the E. and W. by lofty mountains. Akhlat has many ancient remains, among which the most interesting are several beautiful Turbehs, or tower-like tombs, the mausoleums of Sultans or chiefs of the great Tatar tribes. The ancient cemeteries from a belt round the town. On the summit of an isolated rock stand the walls and towers of a castle, the remains of the ancient city of Khelath, the capital of an Armenian province. The face of the perpendicular sandstone rocks about the town is honeycombed with caves — ancient tombs or dwelling-places — some of which are approached by flights of steps. Many of them are inhabited. The neighbourhood of Akhlat presents some of the finest scenery imaginable, and its ancient remains are full of interest to the artist and the architect.

Leaving Akhlat, the road skirts the foot of the Nimroud Dagh, which stretches from the town to the S. extremity of the lake; it then leads through the village of Kharmush to

Keswak, 1 day, an Armenian village, standing in a small bay and sheltered by a rocky promontory.

The traveller's route now lies along the margin of the lake, and leaves its S. end near the Armenian village of Tadwan, once a place of some importance, and still containing a caravanserai, mosques, and baths. The road then passes over an undulating country, where the S. course of the streams and the gradual descent of the country show that, having passed the watershed of central Asia, the traveller has reached the valleys of Assyria. Ruined khans and bridges afford traces of the great road which, in the days of Turkish prosperity, led from Erzeroom, by Mush and Bitlis, to Bagdad. A ravine, here gradually widening, opens on

Bitlis, 1 day, a long, straggling town, the residence of the governor, built in the bottom of a deep valley, and on the sides of ravines worn by small streams. Bitlis was once a town of some importance, and has many picturesque remains of mosques, baths, &c. It now contains about 700 Armenian and 40 Jacobite families. The bazars are poor, but crowded; the trade is almost confined to the produce of the neighbourhood — oak-galls, which are largely exported, wax, wool, and carpets celebrated for the brightness of their colour. There is a large Armenian convent here.

From Bitlis to Jezireh there are 3 roads, 2 of which lead over the mountains, and are difficult and precipitous; the other winds through the valleys of the E. branch of the Tigris. Leaving Bitlis, the latter enters a deep wooded ravine, and, about 5 m. from the town, is carried by a tunnel, about 20 feet long, through a mass of calcareous rock projecting from the mountain's side, from which various other calcareous or petrified currents descend in the form of stalactites. It continues along the same ravine, crossing the now increasing stream of Bitlis, to the large Kurdish village of Goeena, beyond which it follows the bank of the stream until, turning from the valley, it enters a country of low hills, and passes the village of Omais-el-Koran. It now ascends a range of hills to the Kurdish village of Khokhi, from which it descends to the plain country of the Kherzan district, in which lies

Hamki, 3 days, a Yezedi village. 2 h. further on the road to Redwan is the large village of Kashana, after passing which the road runs through a defile into the plain which bears the name of

Redwan, 1 day, a small town of about 800 huts, and containing a bazar and the remains of a castle. The inhabitants are Yezedis, excepting about 100 Armenian and 40 or 50 Jacobite and Chaldean families. A Turkish Mudir, or petty governor, resides here.

After leaving Redwan the road passes through the villages of Jemsari and Halewi to Kunduk, near which are the ruins of Husn Kaifa and other ancient cities. Below Kunduk the Redwan stream joins the Diarbekir branch of the Tigris, and both flow together to the village of Tilleh, where they are joined by the united waters of Bitlis, Sert, and Bohtan. As we have mentioned above, it was at Tilleh that the Greeks forded the latter river, called by Xenophon the Centrites. Below Tilleh the road proceeds by a difficult track along the Tigris, which here forces its way through a long, narrow, and picturesque gorge, the cliffs of which leave little space for a road between them and the river.

Chellek, 1 day (long), a village on the l. bank of the river. The road now proceeds for 3 h. through the ravine of the Tigris, amongst scenery of surpassing grandeur, and, leaving it where it bends to the N., leads in 1½ hours to the Christian village of Khouara. It then, passing the village of Dereboun, ascends a mountain, from which there is a view of unrivalled magnificence, and again descends to

Funduk, 1 day, a large village, inhabited by bigoted Kurds. The Greeks probably reached this place at the end of their first day's march over the Carduchian mountains. The track now lies over a wooded mountain by a difficult pathway, carried along and over rocks containing many excavated tombs, to Fynyk (the site of the ancient city of Phenika), where Xenophon was obliged to turn off from the road, as caravans still are, and to force the mountain pass against the Carduchi. Near this place the rocks are honeycombed with tombs, and on the face of the cliffs are bas-reliefs of the Parthian period, resembling those which Mr. Layard discovered in the mountains of Susiana. About 2 m. off the road to Jezireh are other interesting rock-sculptures of the same period.

Mansouriyah, 1 day, a Nestorian Chaldean village, beyond which is the town of Jezirch, on the rt. bank of the Tigris. From this place there are 2 routes to Semil: that pursued by Mr. Layard, which is practicable only when the Khabour river is fordable, passes the Catholic Chaldean village of Tiekhtan, crosses the Khabour not far from its junction with the Tigris, and, passing also the large Yezidi village of Dereboun, brings the traveller to

Feshapoor, 1 day, a large Chaldean village. Thence it lies across the Assyrian plains to

Semil, 1 day, a Yezedi village, crowned by a modern mud-built castle, and proceeds, by way of Tel Eskof and Tel Kef, to

Moussul. See Rte. 35.